11

H.—l4

every infraction of this law should be punished by fine, or, in case of a second offence, by imprisonment." The Chamber of Deputies manifested hostility, and the question of the working-day has not yet been decided by legislation. Trades Unions. —The French penal code of 1810 declared that no association of more than twenty persons could exist without official permission. The authorities which had in the Middle Ages settled disputes between masters and men by means of the old guild and corporation officers had been pronounced illegal in 1791. It was not till the 25th May, 1867, that the laws forbidding combinations of working-men were repealed, although a certain sort of toleration had for a long time been extended to certain institutions appointed to decide on matters at issue between masters and men. The councils of elders (prud'homines) have been allowed to arbitrate between employers and employed ; but there are no legalized Courts of Arbitration since the attempt of M. Bovier Lapierre in 1890 failed to achieve effective legislation. Female Labour. —The laws generally dealing with the subject of labour make little difference between the hours of men and women, the law of 1848 establishing a twelve-hours' day containing no provision for the weaker sex. However, in particular industries female labour has been protected by Act (19th May, 1874), which prohibits the employment of girls in works and manufactories at night until they have reached the age of twenty-one, and they are not allowed under any'conditions to work in mines and quarries. It has been proved by the evidence before the Parliamentary Committee of 1890 that in shops, millinery, tailoring, and other establishments, where their time is usually 10 or 11 hours, for five or six months of the year they work from 8 a.m. till midnight. In certain factories the law against employing women at night seems set aside, as " in some spinneries where the day-shift is carried on by men, the night-shift is taken by their wives, so that some hours of the day may be selected during which the mother of a family can attend to the house and belongings." One can imagine the kind of rest enjoyed during the day by the mother of a family to fit her for a night of toil. Labour of Children. —By the law of the 19th May, 1874, children are not allowed to work in factories, mines, &c, unless they are over 10 years of age. Between 10 and 16 years, children may be employed-in any trade not dangerous to health, such as manufacturies of deleterious or poisonous gases, of mirror-coating with quicksilver, &c. Children above 12 and below 16 may be employed for 12 hours, subject to conditions as to school certificates, &c. There are constant political agitations to reform the Acts relating to the employment of children so as to prohibit their working under the age of 14, to suppress payment in kind (truck), &c, but these have not yet taken practical legal effect. Italy. The condition of labour in Italy is to some extent unique, since it is of comparatively recent origin. In 1870 the country awoke to new life ; public works on an enormous scale were inaugurated, an army and navy created, national education commenced; and, to meet these sudden and exhausting demands, heavy taxes were imposed. The new system, pressing severely upon some districts, and causing huge expenditure in others, affected the industrial equilibrium, and disturbed the adjustment of position between employers and workmen which was the sleepy growth of centuries. The most important industries of Italy were formerly of an agricultural character, but so rapid! v did the political changes affect the nature of the national work that the mechanical division rose in annual value from £480,000 in 1860, to £1,600,000 in 1880, and has risen to about £3,000,000 at present. In the agricultural districts of North and Central Italy, the labourers are badly fed and have poor lodgings. The permanent hands are best off, but the large number of day-labourers are in a state of great poverty. The wage of an adult man is from 200 to 300 lire (£8 to £12) per annum. The average daily wage is from Is. Bd. in summer, to Is. 2-Jd. in winter. A woman can earn from sd. to 6d. a day. In the South the labourer is better paid, as there is plenty of employment, and he can be sure of about £12 per annum. His ordinary pay of Is. 2-|-d. may rise in harvest time to 25., and even (occasionally) to 4s. The wages in factories differ very considerably, according to locality, and are about as follows : — Cantoni Cotton-mill, Province of Milan, — s. d. Spinners, males ... ... ... ... ... 1 6 per diem. Weavers, males ... ... ... ... ... 1 4 „ Eossi Woollen-mill, Province of Vicenza, — Spinners, males ... ... ... ... ... 4 4 „ Weavers, males ... ... ... ... ... 3 2 „ Sella Woollen-mills, Province of Novara, — Spinners, males ... ... ... ... ... 3 5-J „ Carders, males ... ... ... ... ... 2 0 „ Keller Silk-mill, Province of Cuneo, — Spinners, females ... ... ... ... ... 0 11-J- „ Throwsters, females ... ... ... ... ... 1 0J „ Italian Paper-mill, Province of Novara— Eag-workers ... ... ... ... ... 1 10 „ Paper-makers ... ... ... ■•• ... 2 „ Lanza Candle-factory, Province of Turin, — Hands, males ... ... ... ... ... 2 7 „ Hands, females ... ... .. ... ... 0 9| „ In the sulphur mines the daily wages of workmen average about Is. 9d. As a rule the rate in manufacturing industries is about Is. Bd. a day. In the railway workshops, averaging those at Verona, Florence, Foggia, Bologna, Naples, Eimini, and Lucca, the rate per day of ten hours is;—